Abstract: An in situ study of more than 100 ballast tanks of merchant marine vessels looks to the corrosion process in these tanks from another perspective. The developed corrosion model shows major similarities with earlier studies based on laboratory experiments. The field work exposes the influence of ship construction parameters such as land of construction, coating type and the presence of sacrificial anodes on the corrosion process in the ballast tanks. Possible alternatives for vessels constructed with ordinary grade A steel and coated according to IMO PSPC standards are presented, even though further research is required to come to final conclusions.

Abstract: Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an ideal tool to investigate nanomaterials. The information from TEM experiments allows us to link the structure and composition of nanomaterials to their intrinsic physical properties. However, despite the significant evolution of the TEM field during the last two decades, major progress is still possible through the development of optimal TEM techniques and supports. The results presented in this thesis focus on the optimization of sample supports and their application. Among the different options, graphene has previously been reported as useful sample support for electron microscopy due to its unparalleled properties, for example, it is the thinnest known support and provides a protective effect to the sample under investigation. Unfortunately, commercial graphene grids show poor quality, in terms of intactness and cleanness, inhibiting their wide application within the field. Therefore, this thesis focuses on the application of optimized graphene TEM grids, obtained by transferring high quality graphene using an advanced procedure. This improvement on the transfer has enabled the visualization of materials with low contrast and high sensitivity towards the electron beam, such as surface ligands capping gold nanoparticles or metal halide perovskites. Furthermore, the implemented protocol is not only of interest for conventional TEM grids but also a major benefit for in situ TEM studies, where the sample is investigated in real time under certain stimuli. Hence, the same graphene transfer technology can be also applied to advanced in situ MEMS holders dedicated for both heating and gas experiments, where the thickness and insulating nature of the silicon nitride (Si3N4) support may hamper some applications. By engineering periodic arrays of holes in their Si3N4 membrane by focused ion beam, onto which the graphene is transferred, it has been possible to get proof-of-concept 3D in situ investigations of heat-induced morphological and compositional transformations of complex nanosystems. As an example, it has enabled the investigation of the possible phase-transition of metal halide perovskites upon heating using 2D and 3D structural characterization. Moreover, it has allowed the study of in situ three-dimensional nanoparticle dynamics during gas phase catalysis as well as the first steps that would lead towards the design and creation of the first Graphene Gas Cell. Consequently, implementation of the advanced graphene transfer technology described in this thesis is envisaged to impact a broad range of future experiments.

Abstract: Socially responsible investments can be defined as an investment process that integrates ethical values and environmental protection, improving social conditions, and good governance into a traditional investment decision. This integration is mainly a consequence of the growing importance that investors give to environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria, resulting in more sustainable development. Also, in the real estate sector, increased attention is being paid to the contributions made to integrate economic, environmental, and social factors into decisions. The ESG framework looks closely at how companies are managed, and the impact related to their market value. The factors for investors’ focus are summarized as environmental, social, and governance. The term ESG was coined in a 2004 United Nations (UN) report titled “Who Cares Wins,” aimed at raising awareness regarding the importance of environmental, social, and corporate governance issues in financial markets. The ESG criteria’s specific purpose is to guide investors in recognizing sustainable investments without evaluating how sustainable the asset is or the investment value represented by sustainability. It is essential to underline that ESG does not take specific economic interests into account. The rationale behind this apparent gap is that investors investigate the economic aspects before investing. However, by not explicitly linking ESG and economic criteria, attractive investments are often misjudged and not implemented. For example, investments that only show their value in the longer term or indirectly influence value by achieving a higher retention rate among incumbent tenants, reducing or eliminating friction costs. A product–service system (PSS) refers to a market proposition (business model) that builds on a product’s traditional functionality by incorporating additional services. Although services are already offered, the PSS function is to link the service to a product. The service thereby supports the operation of the product and generates additional benefits. It encompasses the integrated solutions of products and services to satisfy customers' needs and generate maximum value. According to Sutanto et al., a PSS is designed to focus on sustainability characterized in three dimensions. 1. The economic dimension 2. The environmental dimension 3. The social dimension When discussing sustainability in this thesis, we use the criteria listed above related to socially responsible investments. The link between PSS and ESG is that a PSS focuses on creating a sustainable system, and ESG makes sustainability more visible to investors. Therefore, when PSS are recognized and implemented in buildings, they must be evaluated using ESG analysis methods. Product-Service Systems (PSS) try to find a way to offer services on top of a product. The product is essentially secondary to the result that is delivered from the services. For example, the modem (product) that a cable company provides will be of secondary importance to the connectivity (service). Alternatively, it will be less critical how heat is made (product) than the intended set point is achieved in the building. PSSs transform the supply of products into services. In doing so, the responsibility shifts from delivering a product (once only) to continuous service delivery. Therefore, it is in the best interest of the service provider to deliver the outcome of the service as efficiently (read: lowest cost) as possible. A direct consequence of this is that the service provider will want to use the product as efficiently as possible and as long as possible to reduce his costs. Therefore, the supplier will also want to recover and maximize the reuse of his product based on the same rationale. A positive impact on the environment and the used raw materials is thus to be expected. The whole process of servitization (transforming products into services) in real estate will positively impact the Economic, Environmental and Social factors. Therefore, demonstrating this proposition is the main objective of this thesis. Smart PSS is the same idea as Product-Service systems but in which the digitization of the services plays a key role. It will be shown that by digitizing services, a broader range can be offered. It will be demonstrated that products that provide services at the building level can, through their interconnectedness, also provide services to external systems (e.g. electricity grid, urban planning, mobility, ...). At the same time, digitizing the products and services will also underpin trust in the systems and allow for proper remuneration. In this PhD, different standard systems in a building, such as the reservation system, the water heater, or the fire detection system, are equipped with additional services. A PSS is often specifically designed to focus on economic, social, and environmental dimensions. These dimensions correspond to the investor’s examination as part of the ESG analysis before investing. As the PSS is often specifically designed to integrate sustainability, there is a close link between the sustainability performance of the PSS and the ESG criteria evaluated by the investor. Throughout the work, the owner is considered to be the user of the building. It is not the case that only an owner-user can generate cash flow. In essence, if they have sufficient rights to the underlying product, any building user can activate services that generate cash flow. In today's market, it is logical that this is viewed in the owner-user context as they will usually choose the products to be installed in larger technical installations. They may have previously used a PSS or choose to move to one. However, a building’s tenant could choose to lease out their meeting rooms if they are not contractually prohibited from doing so since, in practice, contracts have begun to prohibit certain services. For example, rental contracts that actively prohibit renting out a property through platforms such as Airbnb. Thus, the user’s function could potentially impact how the PSS is designed. This work does not explicitly explore the impact of this aspect. The owner-user is assumed throughout this manuscript. The second chapter describes the state of affairs concerning PSSs in a broad framework evolving towards focusing on the real estate sector. After which, in the second chapter, ESG and the link to real estate and how smart real estate (smart buildings) is missing from this evaluation are discussed in more detail. Chapter 3 shows from a fire alarm system, which was extended with an evacuation support system, the usefulness, and the risk of data. Further work was done to demonstrate the added value in terms of Economic, Environmental and Social factors of standard installations in buildings. In Chapter 4, a simple sanitary hot water boiler is extended with a service that allows controlling this boiler according to the status of the electricity grid (surplus or shortage of energy). The supply and demand of energy on the power grid must be equal at all times. By equipping a classic water heater (product) with additional intelligence (service), it becomes possible to adjust the energy use to the grid's needs. The grid operators are prepared to pay for this. This payment can be linked to different energy markets (long term market, spot market, ...). This study looked at the fee that would have to be paid when the adjustment of the energy use can be made instantaneously so that the fee must be settled according to the prices on the imbalance market. In chapter 5, we look at the impact of the service to rent out free spaces as co-working places on a broad market (external to the building), compared to a regular reservation system. By renting out unused workplaces on a broad market, the utilization of the existing patrimony will be higher. The demand for new square meters with the same function will decrease as the supply-demand curve changes, and so will the price. This makes it less interesting to build new buildings. Less construction of new buildings will result in fewer resources being used, which will positively affect the environment. In addition, fewer new buildings with an office function will leave more space for buildings with another function. Also, the city's infrastructure will be less burdened (roads, sewerage, electricity grid,...). In The Hague, the decreasing need for new square meters of office buildings can lead to more space for affordable housing, for which the city has a great need. Chapter 6 will frame the valuation of service as a real options method that gives an impetus to a general valuation methodology to value the flexibility that Smart PSS inherently has. Finally, this thesis demonstrates that (smart) PSSs impact real estate profitability, while positively influencing environmental and social factors. Further research and the limitations of the studies conducted are documented. This PhD concludes that Product-Service systems should break the silos between different stakeholders, resulting in a lower total cost of ownership of buildings in the longer term. This can only be achieved if the valuation of Product-Service systems is done correctly and is recognized by every stakeholder in the real estate process.