Abstract: Recent studies in which X-ray beams of macroscopic to (sub) microscopic dimensions were used for non-destructive analysis and characterization of pigments, paint micro samples and/or entire paintings by Vincent van Gogh are concisely reviewed. The overview presented encompasses the use of laboratory and synchrotron radiation-based instrumentation and deals with the use of several variants of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) as a method of elemental analysis and imaging as well as with the combined use of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). Microscopic and macroscopic XRF are variants of the method that are well suited to visualize the elemental distribution of key elements, mostly metals, present in paint multi layers, either on the length scale from 1–100 μm inside micro samples taken from paintings or on the 1–100 cm length scale when the (subsurface) distribution of specific pigments in entire paintings is concerned. In the context of the characterization of van Gogh's pigments subject to natural degradation, the use of methods limited to elemental analysis or imaging usually is not sufficient to elucidate the chemical transformations that have taken place. However, at synchrotron facilities, combinations of μ-XRF with related methods such as μ-XAS and μ-XRD have proven themselves to be very suitable for such studies. Their use is often combined with microscopic Fourier transform infra-red (μ-FTIR) spectroscopy since this method delivers complementary information at more or less the same length scale as the X-ray microprobe techniques. Also in the context of macroscopic imaging of works of art, the complementary use of X-ray based and infra-red based imaging appears very promising; some recent developments are discussed.

Abstract: The existence of the (52) stacking of the 7M martensite structure in Ni-Al is discussed in view of different experimental observations relating this structure to the premartensitic anomalies. It is concluded that the extreme fineness of the twinning is inherited from the wavelength of the premartensitic anomalies, while, given this dimension, the actual stacking tries to comply with stress free habit plane conditions by choosing the specific (52) stacking.

Abstract: The interaction of diatoms with sunlight is fundamental in order to deeply understand their role in terrestrial ecology and biogeochemistry, essentially due to their massive contribution to global primary production through photosynthesis and its e↵ect on carbon, oxygen and silicon cycles. Following the journey of light through natural waters, its propagation through the intricate frustule micro- and nano-structure and, finally, its fate inside the photosynthetic machinery of the living cell requires several mathematical and computational models in order to accurately describe all the involved phenomena taking place at di↵erent space scales and physical regimes. In this chapter, we review the main analytical models describing the underwater optical field, the essential numerical algorithms for the study of photonic properties of the diatom frustule seen as a natural metamaterial, as well as the principal models describing photon harvesting in diatom plastids and methods for complex EM propagation problems and wave propagation in dispersive materials with multiple relaxation times. These mathematical methods will be integrated in a unifying geometric perspective.

Abstract: The foodborne pathogens and microorganisms have played a prevalent role in the ebb and flow of the economy worldwide. The increasing population has strained the food processing industry to produce food in large quantity, which in turn has affected the quality of food. To curb this issue, there is immense pressure to produce and maintain quality food within a short time frame. Hence, high throughput technology is used to determine and timely assess the safety and hygiene of food. Further, the revolution of the food industry has also seen an upsurge of new pathogens and microorganisms, thereby increasing the risk of exposure towards rarest diseases to a larger population. This chapter sheds light on the different types of foodborne pathogens affecting the food industry and its social impact. It further emphasizes the safety measures to be taken on the prevention of the disease from the farm to the processing industries and in turn to the household.

Abstract: Atomic Spectroscopy Optical (atomic absorption spectroscopy, AAS; atomic emission spectroscopy, AES; atomic fluorescence spectroscopy, AFS; and optogalvanic spectroscopy) and mass spectrometric (magnetic sector, quadrupole mass analyzer, QMA; quadrupole ion trap, QIT; Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, FTICR; and time-of-flight, TOF) instrumentation are well suited for coupling to the glow discharge (GD). The GD is a relatively simple device. A potential gradient (500–1500 V) is applied between an anode and a cathode. In most cases, the sample is also the cathode. A noble gas (mostly Ar) is introduced into the discharge region before power initiation. When a potential is applied, electrons are accelerated toward the anode. As these electrons accelerate, they collide with gas atoms. A fraction of these collisions are of sufficient energy to remove an electron from a support gas atom, forming an ion. These ions are, in turn, accelerated toward the cathode. These ions impinge on the surface of the cathode, sputtering sample atoms from the surface. Sputtered atoms that do not redeposit on the surface diffuse into the excitation/ionization regions of the plasma where they can undergo excitation and/or ionization via a number of collisional processes, and the photons or ions created in this way can be detected with optical emission spectroscopy or mass spectrometry. GD sources offer a number of distinct advantages that make them well suited for specific types of analyses. These sources afford direct analysis of solid samples, thus minimizing the sample preparation required for analysis. The nature of the plasma also provides mutually exclusive atomization and excitation processes that help to minimize the matrix effects that plague so many other elemental techniques. In recent years, there is also increasing interest for using GD sources for liquid and gas analyses. In this article, first, the principles of operation of the GD plasma are reviewed, with an emphasis on how those principles relate to optical spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Basic applications of the GD techniques are considered next. These include bulk analysis, surface analysis, and the analysis of solution and gaseous samples. The requirements necessary to obtain optical information are addressed following the analytical applications. This article focuses on the instrumentation needed to make optical measurements using the GD as an atomization/excitation source. Finally, mass spectrometric instrumentation and interfaces are addressed as they pertain to the use of a GD plasma as an ion source. GD sources provide analytically useful gas-phase species from solid samples. These sources can be interfaced with a variety of spectroscopic and spectrometric instruments for both quantitative and qualitative analyses.

Abstract: By combining statistical parameter estimation and model-order selection using a Bayesian framework, the maximum a posteriori (MAP) probability rule is proposed in this chapter as an objective and quantitative method to detect atom columns from high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (HRSTEM) images. The validity and usefulness of this approach is demonstrated to both simulated and experimental annular dark-field (ADF) STEM images, but also to simultaneously acquired annular bright-field (ABF) and ADF STEM image data.

Abstract: An efficient model-based estimation algorithm is introduced to quantify the atomic column positions and intensities from atomic-resolution (scanning) transmission electron microscopy ((S)TEM) images. This algorithm uses the least squares estimator on image segments containing individual columns fully accounting for overlap between neighboring columns, enabling the analysis of a large field of view. To provide end-users with this well-established quantification method, a user friendly program, StatSTEM, is developed which is freely available under a GNU public license. In this chapter, this efficient algorithm is applied to three different nanostructures for which the analysis of a large field of view is required.

Abstract: The maximum a posteriori (MAP) probability rule for atom column detection can also be used as a tool to evaluate the relation between scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) image quality and atom detectability. In this chapter, a new image-quality measure is proposed that correlates well with atom detectability, namely the integrated contrast-to-noise ratio (ICNR). Furthermore, the working principle of the MAP probability rule is described in detail showing a close relation to the principles of model-selection methods.

Abstract: In this chapter, the principles of detection theory are used to quantify the probability of error for atom counting from high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (HRSTEM) images. Binary and multiple hypothesis testing have been investigated in order to determine the limits to the precision with which the number of atoms in a projected atomic column can be estimated. The probability of error has been calculated when using STEM images, scattering cross-sections or peak intensities as a criterion to count atoms. Based on this analysis, we conclude that scattering cross-sections perform almost equally well as images and perform better than peak intensities. Furthermore, the optimal STEM detector design can be derived for atom counting using the expression of the probability of error. We show that for very thin objects the low-angle annular dark-field (LAADF) regime is optimal and that for thicker objects the optimal inner detector angle increases.