Abstract: The world famous Alhambra monument in Granada, Southern Spain, listed as UNESCO world cultural heritage since 1984, represents probably the most beautiful example of Islamic art and architecture from the Middle Ages in Europe. It is visited by ca. 2 million people annually. Granada is situated in a natural basin, surrounded by mountains with altitudes up to 3500 m. Due to this topography and the prevailing low wind speeds, pollution-derived and especially traffic-derived particulate matter often accumulates in the urban air. In order to evaluate the potential conservation risks from the surrounding air, the atmospheric composition in the Alhambra monument was evaluated. Indoor temperature and relative humidity fluctuations were evaluated for their potential degenerative effects. Furthermore, the atmospheric composition in the Alhambra was analyzed in terms of inorganic gases (NO2, SO2, O3, and NH3) and black carbon. It was found that the open architecture protected the indoor environments from developing a potentially harmful microclimate, such as the build-up of humidity resulting from the huge number of daily tourists. On the downside, the strong ventilation made the indoor air hardly different from outdoor air, as characterized by strong diurnal temperature and relative humidity gradients and high traffic-derived pollutant levels.

Abstract: Altare was in the medieval and post-medieval period an important glassmaking center in the Liguria region in Northern Italy. The first historical evidence of glassmaking in Altare is dated to the twelfth century. In spite of that, due to the continuity of glassmaking up to the present time and the contemporaneous intensive urbanization of the territory, no medieval glass from Altare or its immediate vicinity has been analyzed up to now. In this work, glass from archaeological excavations in the center of Savona, city with close ties with the glassmaking center, was studied. Glass fragments, dated from the tenth to the sixteenth century were selected from the collections of the Archaeological Museum in Savona and non-destructively analyzed with quantitative PIXE-PIGE. The resulting compositions, compared with known glass productions of the same time and evaluated on the basis of historical documents, offer an interesting panorama on the variety of glass circulation in Liguria. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract: A method for the classification of individual aerosol particles using computer controlled electron probe microanalysis is presented. It is based on chemical boundary conditions (CBC) and enables quick and easy processing of a large set of elemental concentration data (mass%), derived from the X-ray spectra of individual particles. The particles are first classified into five major classes (sea salt related, secondary inorganic, minerals, iron-rich and carbonaceous), after which advanced data mining can be performed by examining the elemental composition of particles within each class into more detail (e.g., by ternary diagrams). The CBC method is validated and evaluated by comparing its results with the output obtained with hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) for well-known standard particles as well as real aerosol particles collected with a cascade impactor. The CBC method gives reliable results and has a major advantage compared to HCA. CBC is based on boundary conditions that are derived from chemical logical thinking and does not require a translation of a mathematical algorithm output as does HCA. Therefore, the CBC method is more objective and enables comparison between samples without intermediate steps.

Abstract: We present a computational model for simulating the dispersion of traffic emitted particulate matter inside a road tunnel, with an emphasis on the number concentration of ultrafine particles (UFP). The model primarily calculates the size distribution of the particle number concentration at each location inside the tunnel. The proposed model differs from existing models in the sense that it uses a continuous representation of the size distribution based upon the high-order finite element method and that it solves the governing equations using the state-of-the-art discontinuous Galerkin method. Next to the traditional transport processes, the model also implements the most important aerosol transformation processes such as coagulation, condensation and dry deposition. It is shown that based upon parametrisations found in literature, the process of condensation in a traffic tunnel cannot properly be modelled. Therefore, we present a correction factor that allows for a better parametrisation. The adequate performance of the model is demonstrated by both a verification study and a validation study. For the verification we show that the discretisation error converges consistently while for the validation we compare the modelled results with a suitable set of data from a UFP measurement campaign in a Taiwanese traffic tunnel. The model is shown to correctly simulate the observed behaviour and by applying a statistical model evaluation we demonstrate that the proposed model meets widely accepted air quality model acceptance criteria. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract: A novel fouling characterization method was applied for a first screening of two novel synthetic flocculants developed by BASF (BASF-1 and BASF-2) and benchmarking with six well-known products. Results showed that this MBR-VITO Fouling Measurement (VFM) was able to identify beneficial and adverse effects of different additives on the mixed liquor's reversible and irreversible fouling and, in combination with supporting mixed liquor analyses, allowed to identify the additive's main working mechanism. The first screening tests indicated that BASF-1 and BASF-2 reduced reversible and irreversible fouling to a similar extent as the known synthetic flocculants due to a charge neutralization mechanism, resulting in enhanced flocculation and SMP removal. Further testing at different additive concentrations provided a first indication of the optimal dosage and revealed a considerable risk of overdosing for BASF-2, rendering it less suited for fouling control. In contrast, such adverse effects were not observed for BASF-1. BASF-1 induced similar beneficial effects as the known MPE50 polymer at lower dosage and was therefore considered promising for application in MBRs. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Abstract: Biodegradation of trichloroethene (TCE) near a Dense Non Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) can enhance the dissolution rate of the DNAPL by increasing the concentration gradient at the DNAPL-water interface. Two-dimensional flow-through sand boxes containing a ICE DNAPL and inoculated with a TCE dechlorinating consortium were set up to measure this bio-enhanced dissolution under anaerobic conditions. The total mass of TCE and daughter products in the effluent of the biotic boxes was 3-6 fold larger than in the effluent of the abiotic box. However, the mass of daughter products only accounted for 19-55% of the total mass of chlorinated compounds in the effluent, suggesting that bio-enhanced dissolution factors were maximally 1.3-2.2. The enhanced dissolution most likely primarily resulted from variable DNAPL distribution rather than biodegradation. Specific dechlorination rates previously determined in a stirred liquid medium were used in a reactive transport model to identify the rate limiting factors. The model adequately simulated the overall TCE degradation when predicted resident microbial numbers approached observed values and indicated an enhancement factor for TCE dissolution of 1.01. The model shows that dechlorination of TCE in the 20 box was limited due to the short residence time and the self-inhibition of the TCE degradation. A parameter sensitivity analysis predicts that the bio-enhanced dissolution factor for this TCE source zone can only exceed a value of 2 if the TCE self-inhibition is drastically reduced (when a TCE tolerant dehalogenating community is present) or if the DNAPL is located in a low-permeable layer with a small Darcy velocity. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract: The risk profile of Cr and Pb in urban road deposited sediment Exponential urbanisation and industrial growth occur on a global scale and result in an ecological burden, of which one important part is pollution. It is well known that the extent of air pollution has escalated over the past two decades in several parts of the world, despite mitigating measures and legislation. Current research points to the fact that air pollution in urban and industrial areas is substantially different from that found in rural areas. Road dust (RD) contributes up to 35% of airborne particulate matter due to resuspension thereof, and poses a health concern due to carcinogenic and toxic components potentially present in the micron-sized fractions. Although literature does report on the concentrations of trace, toxic metals and metalloids present in RD (Hooker and Nathanail 2006), the molecular make-up of particulates generated due to the resuspension of the RD is not well documented. In vitro and animal toxicological studies have confirmed that the chemical composition of inhaled particles plays a major role in its toxic, genotoxic and carcinogenic mechanisms, but the component-specific toxic effects are still not understood. Transition metals binding to air particle matter can result in reactive oxygen species in the human body (particularly in the lungs), and this is a significant risk, especially for vulnerable population groups like elderly people, children and terminally ill patients. The characterisation of the molecular composition of the fine fraction is evidently of importance for public health. During an earlier study, road dust from an inner-city environment in the UK was collected and partially characterised (Barrett e.a. 2010). These same-size fractions were analysed for their elemental concentrations, using X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRFS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). In addition, single-particle analysis was performed on the different fractions by means of Computer Controlled Electron Probe X-ray Micro Analysis (CC-EPXMA) and their molecular structure probed by studying elemental associations. These findings were correlated with Micro Raman Spectroscopy (MRS) results. It was found that the fine fraction (<38 μm) had the highest Pb (238 ppm) and Cr (171 ppm) concentrations. The CC-EPXMA data showed >50% association of Cr-rich particles with Pb and the MRS data showed that the Cr was mostly present as lead chromate and therefore in the Cr(VI) oxidation state. Concentrations of both Pb and Cr decreased substantially (279 (<38 mm) 13 ppm (<1mm); 171 (<38 mm) 91 ppm (<1mm) respectively) in the larger fractions. Apart from rather alarmingly high concentrations of oxidative stressors (Cu, Fe, Mn), the carcinogenic and toxic potential of the inhalable fraction is evident. Preliminary bioaccessibility data indicated that both Cr and Pb are readily

Abstract: Here we show that mineral dust retrieved from an ice core in the central West Antarctic sector, spanning the last five decades, provides evidence that northerly air mass incursions into Antarctica, tracked by dust microparticles, have slightly declined. This result contrasts with dust in ice core records reported in West/coastal Antarctica, which show significant increases to the present day. We attribute that difference, in part, to changes in the regional climate regime triggered by the ozone depletion and its consequences for the polar vortex intensity. The vortex maintains the Antarctic central region relatively isolated from mid-latitude air mass incursions with implications to the intensification of the Westerlies and to a persistent positive phase of the Southern Annular Mode. We also show that variability of the diameter of insoluble microparticles in central West Antarctica can be modeled by linear/quadratic functions of both cyclone depth (energy) and wind intensity around Antarctica.

Abstract: It is well known that airborne particulate matter (APM) has an impact on our cultural heritage. A limited number of articles have been published on the sequential application of elemental and molecular techniques to estimate the degradation potential of APM in environments of cultural heritage importance, and most of these were concerned with indoor environments. The Alhambra monument (Granada, Spain) represents one of the grandest and finest examples of Islamic art and architecture from the Middle Ages. As part of an air quality investigation, two sets of APM were collected at the Hall of the Ambassadors and characterised to determine its potential degradation profile. These were analysed by means of micro-Raman spectroscopy (MRS) and electron probe microanalysis with X-ray detection (EPXMA). The Raman data indicated the presence of various mixed salts of acidic and/or hygroscopic nature, such as sodium and ammonium nitrates and sulfates, especially in the finer fraction. Automated EPXMA estimated this fraction to be as high as 50%. Apart from the potential chemical attack, the soiling due to carbonaceous matter deposition is a real concern. Soot was identified by MRS and EPXMA in all size fractions, reaching values of up to 55%, and was often intertwined with soluble inorganic salts. Ongoing degradation of the pigments is implicated by the presence of brightly coloured particles. MRS and molar abundance ternary diagrams elicited the chemical structure of individual APM so that the degradation potential could be established.

Abstract: Photocatalytic soot oxidation is studied on P25 TiO2 as an important model reaction for self-cleaning processes by means of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Contacting of carbon black with P25 leads on the one hand to a reduction of the local dioxygen concentration in the powder. On the other hand, the weakly adsorbed radicals on the carbon particles are likely to act as alternative traps for the photogenerated conduction-band electrons. We find furthermore that the presence of dioxygen and oxygen-related radicals is vital for the photocatalytic soot degradation. The complete oxidation of soot to CO2 is evidenced by in situ FTIR spectroscopy, no intermediate CO is detected during the photocatalytic process.

Abstract: In this study we investigate the model uncertainties involved in predicting long-term permeable reactive barrier (PRB) remediation efficiency based on a lab-scale column experiment under accelerated flow conditions. A PRB consisting of 20% iron and 80% sand was simulated in a laboratory-scale column and contaminated groundwater was pumped into the column for approximately 1 year at an average groundwater velocity of 3.7E – 1 m d(-1). Dissolved contaminants (PCE. TCE, cis-DCE, trans-DCE and VC) and inorganic (Ca2+, Fe2+, TIC and pH) concentrations were measured in groundwater sampled at different times and at eight different distances along the column. These measurements were used to calibrate a multi-component reactive transport model, which subsequently provided predictions of long-term PRB efficiency under reduced flow conditions (i.e., groundwater velocity of 1.4E -3 m d(-1)), representative of a field site of interest in this study. Iron reactive surface reduction due to mineral precipitation and iron dissolution was simulated using four different models. All models were able to reasonably well reproduce the column experiment measurements, whereas the extrapolated long-term efficiency under different flow rates was significantly different between the different models. These results highlight significant model uncertainties associated with extrapolating long-term PRB performance based on lab-scale column experiments. These uncertainties should be accounted for at the PRB design phase, and may be reduced by independent experiments and field observations aimed at a better understanding of reactive surface deactivation mechanisms in iron PRBs. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.