Abstract: This chapter discusses modeling efforts for plasma-based CO2 conversion, which are needed to obtain better insight in the underlying mechanisms, in order to improve this application. We will discuss two types of (complementary) modeling efforts that are most relevant, that is, (i) modeling of the detailed plasma chemistry by zero-dimensional (0D) chemical kinetic models and (ii) modeling of reactor design, by 2D or 3D fluid dynamics models. By showing some characteristic calculation results of both models, for CO2 splitting and in combination with a H-source, and for packed bed DBD and gliding arc plasma, we can illustrate the type of information they can provide.

Abstract: Colloidal copper(I) sulfide (Cu2-xS) nanocrystals (NCs) have attracted much attention for a wide range of applications because of their unique optoelectronic properties, driving scientists to explore the potential of using Cu2-xS NCs as seeds in the synthesis of heteronanocrystals to achieve new multifunctional materials. Herein, we developed a multistep synthesis strategy toward Cu2-xS/ZnS heteronanorods. The Janus-type Cu2-xS/ZnS heteronanorods are obtained by the injection of hexagonal high-chalcocite Cu2-xS seed NCs in a hot zinc oleate solution in the presence of suitable surfactants, 20 s after the injection of sulfur precursors. The Cu2-xS seed NCs undergo rapid aggregation and coalescence in the first few seconds after the injection, forming larger NCs that act as the effective seeds for heteronucleation and growth of ZnS. The ZnS heteronucleation occurs on a single (100) facet of the Cu2-xS seed NCs and is followed by fast anisotropic growth along a direction that is perpendicular to the c-axis, thus leading to Cu2-xS/ZnS Janus-type heteronanorods with a sharp heterointerface. Interestingly, the high-chalcocite crystal structure of the injected Cu2-xS seed NCs is preserved in the Cu2-xS segments of the heteronanorods because of the highthermodynamic stability of this Cu2-xS phase. The Cu2-xS/ZnS heteronanorods are subsequently converted into single-component Cu2-xS and CuInS2 nanorods by postsynthetic topotactic cation exchange. This work expands the possibilities for the rational synthesis of colloidal multicomponent heteronanorods by allowing the design principles of postsynthetic heteroepitaxial seeded growth and nanoscale cation exchange to be combined, yielding access to a plethora of multicomponent heteronanorods with diameters in the quantum confinement regime.

Abstract: Plasma-catalytic ammonia synthesis in a dielectric barrier discharge reactor has emerged as a possible route for electrification of nitrogen fixation. In this study, we use a combination of experiments and a plasma kinetic model to investigate the ammonia synthesis from N2 and H2, both with and without a solid packing material in the plasma zone. The effect of plasma power, feed flow rate, N2:H2 feed ratio, gas residence time, temperature, and packing material (MgAl2O4 alone or impregnated with Co or Ru) on the ammonia synthesis rate were examined in the experiments. The kinetic model was employed to improve our understanding of the ammonia formation pathways and identify possible changes in these pathways when altering the N2:H2 feed ratio. A higher NH3 synthesis rate was achieved when increasing the feed flow rate, as well as when increasing the gas tem-perature from 100 to 200 ◦C when a packing material was present in the plasma. At the elevated temperature of 200 ◦C, an optimum in the NH3 synthesis rate was observed at an equimolar feed ratio (N2:H2 =1:1) for the plasma alone and MgAl2O4, while a N2-rich feed was favored for Ru/MgAl2O4 and Co/MgAl2O4. The optimum in the synthesis rate with the N2-rich feed, where high energy electrons are more likely to collide with N2, suggests that the rate-limiting step is the dissociation of N2 in the gas phase. This is supported by the kinetic model when packing material was used. However, for the plasma alone, the model found that the N2 dissociation is only rate limiting in H2-rich feeds, whereas the limited access to H in N2-rich feeds makes the hydrogenation of N species limiting.

Abstract: Plasma-based nitrogen fixation for fertilizer production is an attractive alternative to the fossil fuel-based industrial processes. However, many factors hinder its applicability, e.g., the commonly observed inverse correlation between energy consumption and production rates or the necessity to enhance the selectivity toward NO2, the desired product for a more facile formation of nitrate-based fertilizers. In this work, we investigated the use of a rotating gliding arc plasma for nitrogen fixation at elevated pressures (up to 3 barg), at different feed gas flow rates and composition. Our results demonstrate a dramatic increase in the amount of NOx produced as a function of increasing pressure, with a record-low EC of 1.8 MJ/(mol N) while yielding a high production rate of 69 g/h and a high selectivity (94%) of NO2. We ascribe this improvement to the enhanced thermal Zeldovich mechanism and an increased rate of NO oxidation compared to the back reaction of NO with atomic oxygen, due to the elevated pressure.

Abstract: We present a zero-dimensional kinetic model to characterise specifically the gas-phase dynamics of methane
conversion in a nanosecond pulsed discharge (NPD) plasma reactor. The model includes a systematic approach to
capture the nanoscale power discharges and the rapid ensuing changes in electric field, gas and electron temperature,
as well as species densities. The effects of gas temperature and reactor pressure on gas conversion and
product selectivity are extensively investigated and validated against experimental work. We discuss the
important reaction pathways and provide an analysis of the dynamics of the heating and cooling mechanisms. H
radicals are found to be the most populous plasma species and they participate in hydrogenation and dehydrogenation
reactions, which are the dominant recombination reactions leading to C2H4 and C2H2 as main
products (depending on the pressure).

Abstract: Given the ecological problems associated to the CO2 emissions of fossil fuels, plasma technology has gained
interest for conversion of CO2 into value-added products. Microwave plasmas operating at atmospheric pressure
have proven to be especially interesting, due to the high gas temperatures inside the reactor (i.e. up to 6000 K)
allowing for efficient thermal dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2. However, the performance of these high
temperature plasmas is limited by recombination of CO back into CO2 once the gas cools down in the afterglow.
In this work, we computationally investigated several quenching nozzles, developed and experimentally tested
by Hecimovic et al., [1] for their ability to quickly cool the gas after the plasma, thereby quenching the CO
recombination reactions. Using a 3D computational fluid dynamics model and a quasi-1D chemical kinetics
model, we reveal that a reactor without nozzle lacks gas mixing between hot gas in the center and cold gas near
the reactor walls. Especially at low flow rates, where there is an inherent lack of convective cooling due to the
low gas flow velocity, the temperature in the afterglow remains high (between 2000 and 3000 K) for a relatively
long time (in the 0.1 s range). As shown by our quasi-1D chemical kinetics model, this results in a important loss
of CO due to recombination reactions. Attaching a nozzle in the effluent of the reactor induces fast gas quenching
right after the plasma. Indeed, it introduces (i) more convective cooling by forcing cool gas near the walls to mix
with hot gas in the center of the reactor, as well as (ii) more conductive cooling through the water-cooled walls of
the nozzle. Our model shows that gas quenching and the suppression of recombination reactions have more
impact at low flow rates, where recombination is the most limiting factor in the conversion process.

Abstract: The current global energy crisis indicated that increasing our
insight into nonfossil fuel nitrogen fixation pathways for synthetic fertilizer
production is more crucial than ever. Nonequilibrium plasma is a good candidate
because it can use N2 or air as a N source and water directly as a H source, instead
of H2 or fossil fuel (CH4). In this work, we investigate NH3 gas phase formation
pathways from humid N2 and especially humid air up to 2.4 mol % H2O (100%
relative humidity at 20 °C) by optical emission spectroscopy and Fouriertransform
infrared spectroscopy. We demonstrate that the nitrogen fixation
capacity is increased when water vapor is added, as this enables HNO2 and NH3
production in both N2 and air. However, we identified a significant loss
mechanism for NH3 and HNO2 that occurs in systems where these species are
synthesized simultaneously; i.e., downstream from the plasma, HNO2 reacts with NH3 to form NH4NO2, which rapidly decomposes
into N2 and H2O. We also discuss approaches to prevent this loss mechanism, as it reduces the effective nitrogen fixation when not
properly addressed and therefore should be considered in future works aimed at optimizing plasma-based N2 fixation. In-line removal
of HNO2 or direct solvation in liquid are two proposed strategies to suppress this loss mechanism. Indeed, using liquid H2O is
beneficial for accumulation of the N2 fixation products. Finally, in humid air, we also produce NH4NO3, from the reaction of HNO3
with NH3, which is of direct interest for fertilizer application.

Abstract: Plasma catalysis is emerging for plasma-assisted gas conversion
processes. However, the underlying mechanisms of plasma catalysis are poorly
understood. In this work, we present a 1D heterogeneous catalysis model with axial
dispersion (i.e., accounting for back-mixing and molecular diffusion of fluid elements in
the process stream in the axial direction), for plasma-catalytic NO production from
N2/O2 mixtures. We investigate the concentration and reaction rates of each species
formed as a function of time and position across the catalyst, in order to determine the
underlying mechanisms. To obtain insights into how the performance of the process
can be further improved, we also study how changes in the postplasma gas flow
composition entering the catalyst bed and in the operation conditions of the catalytic
stage affect the performance of NO production.

Abstract: Given the ecological problems associated to the CO2 emissions of fossil fuels, plasma technology has gained
interest for conversion of CO2 into value-added products. Microwave plasmas operating at atmospheric pressure
have proven to be especially interesting, due to the high gas temperatures inside the reactor (i.e. up to 6000 K)
allowing for efficient thermal dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2. However, the performance of these high
temperature plasmas is limited by recombination of CO back into CO2 once the gas cools down in the afterglow.
In this work, we computationally investigated several quenching nozzles, developed and experimentally tested
by Hecimovic et al., [1] for their ability to quickly cool the gas after the plasma, thereby quenching the CO
recombination reactions. Using a 3D computational fluid dynamics model and a quasi-1D chemical kinetics
model, we reveal that a reactor without nozzle lacks gas mixing between hot gas in the center and cold gas near
the reactor walls. Especially at low flow rates, where there is an inherent lack of convective cooling due to the
low gas flow velocity, the temperature in the afterglow remains high (between 2000 and 3000 K) for a relatively
long time (in the 0.1 s range). As shown by our quasi-1D chemical kinetics model, this results in a important loss
of CO due to recombination reactions. Attaching a nozzle in the effluent of the reactor induces fast gas quenching
right after the plasma. Indeed, it introduces (i) more convective cooling by forcing cool gas near the walls to mix
with hot gas in the center of the reactor, as well as (ii) more conductive cooling through the water-cooled walls of
the nozzle. Our model shows that gas quenching and the suppression of recombination reactions have more
impact at low flow rates, where recombination is the most limiting factor in the conversion process.

Abstract: The application of dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma reactors is promising in various environmental and energy processes, but is limited by their low energy yield. In this study, we put a number of stainless steel rings over the inner electrode rod of the DBD reactor to change the local discharge gap and electric field, and we studied the dry reforming performance. At 50 W supplied power, the metal rings mostly have a negative impact on the performance, which we attribute to the non-uniform spatial distribution of the discharges caused by the rings. However, at 30 W supplied power, the energy yield is higher than at 50 W and the placement of the rings improves the performance of the reactor. More rings and with a larger cross-sectional diameter can further improve the performance. The reactor with 20 rings with a 3.2 mm cross-sectional diameter exhibits the best performance in this study. Compared to the reactor without rings, it increases the CO2 conversion from 7% to 16 %, the CH4 conversion from 12% to 23%, and the energy yield from 0.05 mmol/kJ supplied power to 0.1 mmol/kJ (0.19 mmol/kJ if calculated from the plasma power), respectively. The presence of the rings increases the local electric field, the displaced charge and the discharge fraction, and also makes the discharge more stable and with more uniform intensity. It also slightly improves the selectivity to syngas. The performance improvement observed by placing stainless steel rings in this study may also be applicable to other plasma-based processes.

Abstract: Accurate barriers for rate controlling elementary reactions on metal surfaces are key to understanding, controlling, and predicting the rate of heterogeneously catalyzed processes. While barrier heights for gas phase reactions have been extensively benchmarked, dissociative chemisorption barriers for the reactions of molecules on metal surfaces have received much less attention. The first database called SBH10 and containing 10 entries was recently constructed based on the specific reaction parameter approach to density functional theory (SRP-DFT) and experimental results. We have now constructed a new and improved database (SBH17) containing 17 entries based on SRP-DFT and experiments. For this new SBH17 benchmark study, we have tested three algorithms (high, medium, and light) for calculating barrier heights for dissociative chemisorption on metals, which we have named for the amount of computational effort involved in their use. We test the performance of 14 density functionals at the GGA, GGA+vdW-DF, and meta-GGA rungs. Our results show that, in contrast with the previous SBH10 study where the BEEF-vdW-DF2 functional seemed to be most accurate, the workhorse functional PBE and the MS2 density functional are the most accurate of the GGA and meta-GGA functionals tested. Of the GGA+vdW functionals tested, the SRP32-vdW-DF1 functional is the most accurate. Additionally, we found that the medium algorithm is accurate enough for assessing the performance of the density functionals tested, while it avoids geometry optimizations of minimum barrier geometries for each density functional tested. The medium algorithm does require metal lattice constants and interlayer distances that are optimized separately for each functional. While these are avoided in the light algorithm, this algorithm is found not to give a reliable description of functional performance. The combination of relative ease of use and demonstrated reliability of the medium algorithm will likely pave the way for incorporation of the SBH17 database in larger databases used for testing new density functionals and electronic structure methods.

Abstract: Gas-solid vortex chambers are a promising alternative for reactive and non-reactive processes requiring enhanced heat and mass transfer rates and order-of-milliseconds contact time. The conservation of angular momentum is instrumental in understanding how the interactions between gas, particulate solids, and chamber walls influence the formation of a rotating solids bed. Therefore, this work applies the conservation of angular momentum to derive a model that gives the average angular velocity of solids in terms of gas injection velocity, wall-solids bed drag coefficient, gas and particle properties, and chamber geometry. Three datasets from published studies, comprising 1 g-Geldart B- and d-type particles in different vortex chambers, validate the model results. Using a sensitivity analysis, we assessed the effect of input variables on the average angular velocity of solids, average void fraction, and average bed height. Results indicate that the top and bottom end-wall boundaries exert the most significant braking effect on the rotating solids bed compared with the cylindrical outer wall and gas injection boundaries. The wall-solids bed drag coefficient appears independent of the gas injection velocity for a wide range of operating conditions. The proposed model is a valuable tool for analyzing and comparing gas–solid vortex typologies, unraveling improvement opportunities, and scale-up.

Abstract: Direct photocatalytic reduction of CO2 has become an highly active field of research. It is thus of utmost importance to maintain an overview of the various materials used to sustain this process, find common trends, and, in this way, eventually improve the current conversions and selectivities. In particular, CO2 photoreduction using plasmonic photocatalysts under solar light has gained tremendous attention, and a wide variety of materials has been developed to reduce CO2 towards more practical gases or liquid fuels (CH4, CO, CH3OH/CH3CH2OH) in this manner. This Review therefore aims at providing insights in current developments of photocatalysts consisting of only plasmonic nanoparticles and semiconductor materials. By classifying recent studies based on product selectivity, this Review aims to unravel common trends that can provide effective information on ways to improve the photoreduction yield or possible means to shift the selectivity towards desired products, thus generating new ideas for the way forward.

Abstract: We evaluate the importance of quantum effects on the sticking of H2 on Al(110) for conditions that are close to those of molecular beam experiments that have been done on this system. Calculations with the quasi-classical trajectory (QCT) method and with quantum dynamics (QD) are performed using a model in which only motion in the six molecular degrees of freedom is allowed. The potential energy surface used has a minimum barrier height close to the value recently obtained with the quantum Monte Carlo method. Monte Carlo averaging over the initial rovibrational states allowed the QD calculations to be done with an order of magnitude smaller computational expense. The sticking probability curve computed with QD is shifted to lower energies relative to the QCT curve by 0.21 to 0.05 kcal/mol, with the highest shift obtained for the lowest incidence energy. Quantum effects are therefore expected to play a small role in calculations that would evaluate the accuracy of electronic structure methods for determining the minimum barrier height to dissociative chemisorption for H2 + Al(110) on the basis of the standard procedure for comparing results of theory with molecular beam experiments.

Abstract: The quartic force fields of FNO and CINO have been computed at the CCSD(T)/cc-pVTZ level. Using an ''augmented'' basis set dramatically improves results for FNO but has no significant effect for CINO. The best computed force field for FNO yields harmonic frequencies and fundamentals in excellent agreement with experiment. Overall, the force fields proposed in the present work are probably the most reliable ones ever published for these molecules. Total atomization energies have been computed using basis sets of spdfg quality: our best estimates are Sigma D-0 = 208.5 +/- 1 and 185.4 +/- 1 kcal/mol for FN0 and CINO, respectively. The computed value for FNO suggests a problem with the established experimental heat of formation. Thermodynamic tables in JANAF style at 100-2000 K are presented for both FNO and CINO.